Find the Best Second Hand Boxes in Your City: A Local Guide

Process of matching design factors for corrugated fiberboard boxes

Corrugated box design is the process of matching design factors for corrugated fiberboard (sometimes called corrugated cardboard) or corrugated plastic boxes with the functional physical, processing and end-use requirements. Packaging engineers work to meet the performance requirements of a box while controlling total costs throughout the system. Corrugated boxes are shipping containers used for transport packaging and have important functional and economic considerations.^[1]

In addition to the structural design, printed bar codes, labels, and graphic design can also be important.

Functions

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Microflute box with circular security tape seal

Partially open; showing tuck flap and locking tab (tongue)

Corrugated boxes are used frequently as shipping containers. Boxes need to contain the product from manufacturing through distribution to sale and sometimes end-use. Boxes provide some measure of product protection by themselves but often require inner components such as cushioning, bracing and blocking to help protect fragile contents. The shipping hazards depend largely upon the particular logistics system being employed. For example, boxes unitized into a unit load on a pallet do not encounter individual handling while boxes sorted and shipped through part of their distribution cycle as mixed loads or express carriers can receive severe shocks, kicks, and so forth.^[2][3][4]

Ordinary shipping containers require printing and labels to identify the contents, provide legal and regulatory information, and bar codes for routing. Boxes that are used for marketing, merchandising and point-of-sale often have high graphics to help communicate the contents. Some boxes are designed for the display of contents on the shelf known as "Retail Ready Packaging". Others are designed to help dispense the contents. Popular for their strength, durability, lightness, recyclability, and cost-effectiveness, corrugated boxes are used for the shipping of a variety of items. Due to the quality and safety of packaging items in corrugated boxes, they are used widely in the food industry. The boxes handle the pressure that comes with stacking, making them ideal for easy transporting.

More than 95% of all products in the United States are shipped in corrugated boxes. Corrugated paperboard accounts for more than half of all the paper recycled in the US.

Stacking strength

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One of the important functions of a corrugated box is to provide crush resistance (product protection) and adequate strength for stacking in warehouses. If long-term storage of corrugated boxes in high humidity is expected, extra strength and moisture resistance is called for. The method of loading boxes on pallets strongly affects stacking. Vertical columns provide the best box performance while interlocking patterns of boxes significantly reduce performance. The interaction of the boxes and pallets is also important.^[5][6]

A box can be designed by optimizing the grade of corrugated board, box design, flute direction, and inner supports. Support from the product also provides "load sharing" and can be an important factor.^[7] Box closures sometimes can have effects on box stacking strength.^[8]

Box compression testing is a means of evaluating boxes, stacks of boxes, and unit loads under controlled conditions. Field conditions of stacking and dynamic compression do not have the same degree of control. Compression strength can be estimated based on container construction, size, and use parameters: actual package testing is often conducted to verify these estimates.

Handling strength

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Box construction needs to be matched to its logistics system. Packages designed for controlled shipments of uniform pallet loads (left) may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers (right)

Many items are shipped individually (in part or entirely) by express carrier, mail, or other mixed logistics systems. The demands of multiple manual handlings, automated sortation, and uncontrolled stacking in trucks or air containers put severe stress on boxes, box closures, and the contents. Boxes designed for unit load handling and storage may not be suited to mixed logistics systems. Less than truckload shipping puts more stress on corrugated shipping containers than shipment by uniform pallet loads in trucks or intermodal containers. Boxes sometimes need to be heavier construction to match the needs of the distribution system. Package testing is often matched to the expected shipping hazards. ASTM International and the International Safe Transit Association test protocols reflect this.^[9][10]

Several texts offer guidance on the box design process. The Wiley Handbook of Packaging Technology^[1] offers guidance on considerations and options. ASTM D5639 Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements discusses material choices and box structures which may be good options for specified package performance.

Depending on the contents, some corrugated boxes need extra stiffness or a heavier grade of board.^[11][4] Boxes with hand holes^[12] or handles sometimes need higher strength board, reinforcement attached with adhesives, or embedded fibers.^[3]

Several packaging texts discuss factors to consider in the design of packages. ASTM International has standards D6198, Standard Guide for Transport Packaging Design and D5639. Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements. These suggest factors including cost (materials, labor, capital), utility, package performance, machinability, marketing requirements, logistics factors, transport hazards (compression, impact, rupture, humidity, condensation, temperature, pilferage), regulations, and others.

Packaging engineers and designers start with the needs of the particular project: cost constraints, machinery capabilities, product characteristics, logistics needs, applicable regulations, consumer needs, etc. Often designs are made with Computer Aided Design programs for structural layout[ the files can be downloaded to automated sample-making tables.^[13] Several design and construction options might be considered.Samples are often submitted to package testing based on ASTM or other standard test protocols such as the International Safe Transit Association. Structural design is matched with graphic design. For consumer based designs, marketing personnel sometimes use Focus groups or more quantitative means of assessing acceptance. Test markets are employed for major programs.^[14][15]

The process starts by making corrugated board on a corrugating line, a long series of linked machines which may be the size of an (American) football field. A finished piece of single-wall corrugated board is a single corrugated layer sandwiched between two liners.

Skilled workers prepare job tickets for each stack of box blanks and route the blanks to fabrication machines. Printing dies and patterns are prepared on large, flexible, rubber or tin sheets. They are loaded onto rollers and the box blanks are fed through it, where each is trimmed, printed, cut, scored, folded, and glued to form a box. Finished boxes are then stacked and sent to a banding machine to be wrapped and shipped.

The most common box style is the Regular Slotted Container (RSC). All flaps are the same length from score to edge. Typically the major flaps meet in the middle and the minor flaps do not, unless the width is equal to the length. The size of a box can be measured for either internal (for product fit) or external (for handling machinery or palletizing) dimensions. The manufacturer's joint is most often joined with adhesive but may also be taped or stitched. The box is shipped flat (knocked down) to the packager who sets up the box, fills it, and closes it for shipment. Box closure may be by tape, adhesive, staples, strapping, etc. Boxes are usually specified and ordered by the internal dimensions.Box styles in Europe are typically specified by a 4-digit code provided by the European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers (FEFCO); an RSC is coded 0201.^[16]

Many other styles of corrugated boxes and structures are available. One common source is the Fibre Box Association:^[17]

• FOL (Full Overlap): A Full Overlap Box is similar to an RSC except the major flaps fully overlap. Full-overlap flaps provide extra stacking strength and edge protection.
• HSC (Half Slotted Container): Half-Slotted Containers (HSC) are similar to an RSC, but with only one set of flaps. They are useful when an open-top container is desired. HSCs can be used to create a telescope box.
• A Full Telescope Box has two fully telescoping sections. The sections may be formed by staples, die-cut locks, adhesive, etc.
• A Partial Telescope Box has two sections. The top telescopes partially over the bottom. Commonly used for holding printing paper.
• A Bliss box is a three piece box, usually with flaps meeting on the top ^[18]
• A corrugated tray is often used for display purposes or used with a shrink wrap
• Corrugated corner pads can be used for product support and cushioning
• Special die-cut shapes have almost endless designs and uses.
• etc.

• 
  Wholesale outlet using full pallet loads
• 
  Bag-in-box containing liquids to dispense
• 
  Box used for fruit packaging is open to allow respiration and access to cold chain. Tabs interlock when stacked on a pallet.
• 
  Boxes of books, with security tape used as a closure
• 
  Telescope box with hand holes and ventilation holes (banana box)
• 
  Die-cut folder for a faucet
• 
  Corner cut carton for beverage cans^[19]
• 
  Corrugated box, inner corrugated support, and cushioning for hard drive
• 
  Take-out pizza in a die-cut folder
• 
  Display boxes for bottles of juice

Retailers often ask for merchandise to be delivered to them in shipping containers which allow the easy stocking of full caseloads. The goal is to put the case directly onto shelves and stocking locations without individually handling the unit packs or primary packages. Retailers often require products to come in shelf-ready packaging to reduce stocking costs and save labor expenses. Several specialized box designs are available.^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]}

Many items being supplied to governments are handled very well: boxes are unitized, shipped on covered trucks or intermodal containers, and storage is in warehouses. Normal "domestic boxes" and commercial packaging are acceptable.^[27]

Military materiel, field supplies, and humanitarian aid often encounter severe handling and uncontrolled storage. Special box specifications for government shipments are often applicable. Weather-resistant fiberboards, box construction, box closure, and unitizing are needed.^[28]

Shipment of dangerous goods or hazardous materials are highly regulated. Based on the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods model regulations, each country has coordinated design and performance requirements for shipment. For example, in the US, the Department of Transportation has jurisdiction and published requirements in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Corrugated boxes are described in 4G requirements. Performance (severe drop test, etc.) needs to be certified for the box and contents.^[29][30]

Some carriers have additional requirements.

The means of closing a box is an important aspect of design. It is affected by the types of equipment available to production lines, the measured laboratory performance, the field performance, and the ability of end-users to easily and safely open the box.

Box closures include:^[31]

• Adhesive, water-based or hot-melt adhesive – Adhesives are applied manually or by machine. Starch-based adhesives are the choice of a corrugator as it is economic. Starch works as a medium for molds, lichens, and fungus, so to prevent it, antifungals are added in it before use.
• Staples – staples are used to attach the box flaps. Small (nominally 1⁄2 inch crown) staples can be applied to a box with a post stapler. Wider crown (nominally 1+1⁄4 inch) staples can be applied with a blind clincher
• Box sealing tape, pressure-sensitive-tapes are available in various widths i.e. 36, 48, and 72 mm widths and several thicknesses. BOPP and PET are used as a backing. Taping is done either manually or by semi-automatic Case sealer.
• Filament tape, reinforced pressure-sensitive tape used to close boxes.
• Gummed paper tape – consists of a heavy paper in which adhesive is activated by water and bonds the tape to the box.
• Reinforced water activated gummed tape. Two plies of paper with reinforcing filaments embedded between them.
• Strapping – straps are generally used for unitizing, made up of plastic (PP, PE, PET, PVC), metal (SS steel) etc. and are available in various widths.
• Shrink wrap – a thin film of LLDPE, LDPE, etc. which shrinks with the application of heat resulting in wrapping a box from all sides. Shrink wrapping is generally more expensive as it needs a hot tunnel and requires more material than the alternatives. However, the packed box will be better protected from the environment as the wrap works as a barrier.

• "Fibre Box Handbook", Fibre Box Association, Chicago IL
• Koning, John W. (1995). Corrugated Crossroads: A Reference Guide for the Corrugated Containers Industry. TAPPI Press. ISBN 9780898522990.
• European Corrugated Board Industry
• Good Manufacturing Practices for Corrugated and Solid Board Packaging
• Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, ISBN 1-930268-25-4
• "Guide for Packaging for Small Parcel Shipments", 2005, IoPP
• Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6

• D642 Test Method for Determining Compressive Resistance of Shipping Containers, Components, and Unit Loads.
• D1974 Standard Practice for Methods of Closing, Sealing and Reinforcing Fiberboard Boxes
• D4577 Test Method for Compression Resistance of a Container Under Constant Load
• D5118 Standard Practice for Fabrication of Fiberboard Shipping Boxes
• D5168 Standard Practice for Fabrication and Closure of Triple-Wall Corrugated Fiberboard Containers
• D5639 Standard Practice for Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on Performance Requirements
• D6804 Standard Guide for Hand Hole Design in Corrugated Boxes

Heavy-duty paper of varying strengths

For other uses, see Cardboard (disambiguation).

Cardboard is a generic term for heavy paper-based products. Their construction can range from a thick paper known as paperboard to corrugated fiberboard, made of multiple plies of material. Natural cardboards can range from grey to light brown in color, depending on the specific product; dyes, pigments, printing, and coatings are available.

The word cardboard has general use in English and French,^[1][2] but the term is deprecated in commerce and industry as not adequately defining a specific product.^[3] Material producers, container manufacturers,^[4] packaging engineers,^[5] and standards organizations,^[6] use more specific terminology.

Usage statistics

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In 2020, the United States hit a record high in its yearly use of cardboard. Over 120 billion pieces were used that year, with around 80 percent of all the products sold in the United States being packaged in cardboard.^[7] In the same year, over 13,000 separate pieces of consumer cardboard packaging were thrown away by American households, combined with all paper products, and this constitutes almost 42 percent of all solid waste generated by the United States annually. In an effort to reduce this environmental impact, many households have started repurposing cardboard boxes for eco-friendly purposes.

However, despite the sheer magnitude of paper waste, the vast majority of it is composed of one of the most successful and sustainable packaging materials of modern times - corrugated cardboard, known industrially as corrugated fiberboard.^[8]

Types

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Various card stocks

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Various types of cards are available, which may be called cardboard. Included are: thick paper (of various types) or pasteboard used for business cards, aperture cards, postcards, playing cards, catalog covers, binder's board for bookbinding, scrapbooking, and other uses which require higher durability than regular paper.

Paperboard is a paper-based material, usually more than about ten mils (0.010 inches (0.25 mm)) thick. It is often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, etc. Configurations of paperboard include:

• Containerboard, used in the production of corrugated fiberboard.
• Folding boxboard, comprising multiple layers of chemical and mechanical pulp.
• Solid bleached board, made purely from bleached chemical pulp and usually has a mineral or synthetic pigment.
• Solid unbleached board, typically made of unbleached chemical pulp.
• White lined chipboard, typically made from layers of waste paper or recycled fibers, most often with two to three layers of coating on the top and one layer on the reverse side. Because of its recycled content it will be grey from the inside.
• Binder's board, a paperboard used in bookbinding for making hardcovers.

Currently, materials falling under these names may be made without using any actual paper.^[9]

Corrugated fiberboard is a combination of paperboards, usually two flat liners and one inner fluted corrugated medium. It is often used for making corrugated boxes for shipping or storing products. This type of cardboard is also used by artists as original material for sculpting.^[10]

Most types of cardboard are recyclable. Boards that are laminates, wax coated, or treated for wet-strength are often more difficult to recycle. Clean cardboard (i.e., cardboard that has not been subject to chemical coatings) "is usually worth recovering, although often the difference between the value it realizes and the cost of recovery is marginal".^[11] Cardboard can be recycled for industrial or domestic use. For example, cardboard may be composted or shredded for animal bedding.^[12]

The material had been first made in France, in 1751, by a pupil of Réaumur, and was used to reinforce playing cards.^{[citation needed]} The term cardboard has been used since at least 1848, when Anne Brontë mentioned it in her novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall.^[13] The Kellogg brothers first used paperboard cartons to hold their flaked corn cereal, and later, when they began marketing it to the general public, a heat-sealed bag of wax paper was wrapped around the outside of the box and printed with their brand name. This development marked the origin of the cereal box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box. The Kieckhefer Container Company, run by John W. Kieckhefer, was another early American packaging industry pioneer. It excelled in the use of fiber shipping containers, particularly the paper milk carton.

• 
  A postcard from 1908
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  Posters and display boards at science fair
• 
  Hardcover book
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  Punch card, early digital storage
• 
  Mat used for framing picture
• 
  Corrugated box used for storage of archives
• 
  Business cards
• 
  Fiber tubes for roll of paper
• 
  Paperboard jigsaw puzzle

Look up cardboard in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Cardboard box
• Cardboard furniture
• Carton
• Corrugated box design
• Folding carton
• Juicebox (container)
• Paperboard

Enclosure or protection of products for distribution, storage, and sale

For other uses, see Packaging (disambiguation).

 

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells.^[1][2] In many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and for personal use.

Package labeling (American English) or labelling (British English) is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. Many countries or regions have regulations governing the content of package labels. Merchandising, branding, and persuasive graphics are not covered in this article.

History of packaging

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Ancient era

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The first packages used the natural materials available at the time: baskets of reeds, wineskins (bota bags), wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed: first glass and bronze vessels. The study of old packages is an essential aspect of archaeology.

The first usage of paper for packaging was sheets of treated mulberry bark used by the Chinese to wrap foods as early as the first or second century BC.^[3]

The usage of paper-like material in Europe was when the Romans used low grade and recycled papyrus for the packaging of incense.^[4]

The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian traveller visiting markets in Cairo, Arab Egypt, noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.^[4]

Modern era

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Tinplate

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The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century. The manufacturing of tinplate was the monopoly of Bohemia for a long time; in 1667 Andrew Yarranton, an English engineer, and Ambrose Crowley brought the method to England where it was improved by ironmasters including Philip Foley.^[5][6] By 1697, John Hanbury^[7] had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making "Pontypool Plates".^[8][9] The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the former practice of hammering.

Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725. The tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire.^[10] By 1805, 80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported. Tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards.

Canning

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With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, the tin canning process was patented by British merchant Peter Durand in 1810.^[11] After receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. He sold his patent in 1812 to two other Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy.^[12]

The progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road, Middlesex, UK, devised a claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans.^[13] In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury, Connecticut.

Paper-based packaging

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Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839. The first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated) paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats. Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's invention came about as a result of an accident: as a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, he was once printing an order of seed bags, and the metal ruler, commonly used to crease bags, shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes.^[14]

Commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852.

20th century

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Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and panels on cartons. These innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and functionality.^[15]

In 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering.^[16]

In-plant recycling has long been typical for producing packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper-based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.

Many prominent innovations in the packaging industry were developed first for military use. Some military supplies are packaged in the same commercial packaging used for general industry. Other military packaging must transport materiel, supplies, foods, etc. under severe distribution and storage conditions. Packaging problems encountered in World War II led to Military Standard or "mil spec" regulations being applied to packaging, which was then designated "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due to operations in Iceland experiencing critical losses, ultimately attributed to bad packaging. In most cases, mil spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials, field rations, antistatic bags, and various shipping crates) are similar to commercial grade packaging materials, but subject to more stringent performance and quality requirements.^[17]

As of 2003^[update], the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of the gross national product in developed countries. About half of this market was related to food packaging.^[18] In 2019 the global food packaging market size was estimated at USD 303.26 billion, exhibiting a CAGR of 5.2% over the forecast period. Growing demand for packaged food by consumers owing to quickening pace of life and changing eating habits is expected to have a major impact on the market.

The purposes of packaging and package labels

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Packaging and package labeling have several objectives^[19]

• Physical protection – The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from, among other things, mechanical shock, vibration, electrostatic discharge, abrasion, compression, temperature,^[20] etc.
• Barrier protection – A barrier to oxygen, water vapor, sunlight, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres^[21] or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile^[22] and safe for the duration of the intended shelf life is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials prior to end use is required, as in the case of special paints, glues, medical fluids, etc.
• Containment or agglomeration – liquids and powders need to be contained for shipment and sale. Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of storage and selling efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 marbles requires less physical handling than 1000 single marbles. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
• Information transmission – Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and chemical products, some types of information are required by government legislation. Some packages and labels also are used for track and trace purposes. Most items include their serial and lot numbers on the packaging, and in the case of food products, medicine, and some chemicals the packaging often contains an expiry/best-before date, usually in a shorthand form. Packages may indicate their construction material with a symbol.
• Marketing – Packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase a product. Package graphic design and physical design have been important and constantly evolving phenomena for several decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and often to the point of sale display. Most packaging is designed to reflect the brand's message and identity on the one hand while highlighting the respective product concept on the other hand.

• Security – Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter manipulation and they can also have tamper-evident^[23] features indicating that tampering has taken place. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage or the theft and resale of products: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage than other types, and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Counterfeit consumer goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be minimized or prevented with such anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance^[24] tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention.
• Convenience – Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, using, dispensing, reusing, recycling, and ease of disposal
• Portion control – Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.
• Branding/Positioning – Packaging and labels are increasingly used to go beyond marketing to brand positioning, with the materials used and design chosen key to the storytelling element of brand development. Due to the increasingly fragmented media landscape in the digital age this aspect of packaging is of growing importance.

Packaging types

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Packaging may be of several different types. For example, a transport package or distribution package can be the shipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which is directed toward a consumer or household.

Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical device packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food packaging, military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: primary, secondary, tertiary,etc.

• Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents.
• Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, and may be used to prevent pilferage or to group primary packages together.
• Tertiary or transit packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly into containers.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when used to combine smaller packages, or tertiary packaging when used to facilitate some types of distribution, such as to affix a number of cartons on a pallet.

Packaging can also have categories based on the package form. For example, thermoform packaging and flexible packaging describe broad usage areas.

Labels and symbols used on packages

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Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications (such as the FCC and TÜV marks), trademarks, proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer rights and safety, for example the CE marking or the estimated sign that notes conformance to EU weights and measures accuracy regulations. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include the recycling symbol, the recycling code (which could be a resin identification code), and the "Green Dot". Food packaging may show food contact material symbols. In the European Union, products of animal origin which are intended to be consumed by humans have to carry standard, oval-shaped EC identification and health marks for food safety and quality insurance reasons.

Bar codes, Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated information management in logistics and retailing. Country-of-origin labeling is often used. Some products might use QR codes or similar matrix barcodes. Packaging may have visible registration marks and other printing calibration and troubleshooting cues.

The labelling of medical devices includes many symbols, many of them covered by international standards, foremost ISO 15223-1.

Several aspects of consumer package labeling are subject to regulation. One of the most important is to accurately state the quantity (weight, volume, count) of the package contents. Consumers expect that the label accurately reflects the actual contents. Manufacturers and packagers must have effective quality assurance procedures and accurate equipment; even so, there is inherent variability in all processes.

Regulations attempt to handle both sides of this. In the US, the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act provides requirements for many types of products. Also, NIST has Handbook 133, Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods.^[25] This is a procedural guide for compliance testing of net contents and is referenced by several other regulatory agencies.^[26]

Other regions and countries have their own regulatory requirements. For example, the UK has its Weights and Measures (Packaged Goods) Regulations^[27] as well as several other regulations. In the EEA, products with hazardous formulas need to have a UFI.

Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes, bar codes, and electronic data interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has an essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.

Elements of these core technologies include UPC and EAN item identification codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designated GS1-128) bar code symbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.

Small parcel carriers often have their own formats. For example, United Parcel Service has a MaxiCode 2-D code for parcel tracking.

RFID labels for shipping containers are also increasingly used. A Wal-Mart division, Sam's Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers to comply.^[28]

Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special information and symbols (labels, placards, etc.) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. On transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some are defined in the ASTM D5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods", ISO 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods", and GHS hazard pictograms.

• 
  Flammable liquid
• 
  Explosives
• 
  This way up
• 
  Fragile material
• 
  Keep away from water

Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product development process. Alternatively, the development of a package (or component) can be a separate process but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design, marketing, shelf life, quality assurance, logistics, legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The design criteria, performance (specified by package testing), completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon. Package design processes often employ rapid prototyping, computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing and document automation.

Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logistics system. Packages designed for controlled shipments of uniform pallet loads (left) may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers (right).

An example of how package design is affected by other factors is its relationship to logistics. When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorting, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletized unit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to meet those specific needs, such as vertical stacking for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited to another.

With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the packaging. For example, any package components that may contact foods are designated food contact materials.^[29] Toxicologists and food scientists need to verify that such packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations. Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be validated to assure that they comply with regulations that have the well being of the consumer in mind.

Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, regulations for an over-the-counter drug might require the package to be tamper-evident and child resistant:^[30] These intentionally make the package difficult to open.^[31] The intended consumer, however, might be disabled or elderly and unable to readily open the package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.

Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external packaging engineering: independent contractors, consultants, vendor evaluations, independent laboratories, contract packagers, total outsourcing, etc. Some sort of formal project planning and project management methodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development programs. An effective quality management system and Verification and Validation protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.

Package development involves considerations of sustainability, environmental responsibility, and applicable environmental and recycling regulations. It may involve a life cycle assessment^[32][33] which considers the material and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, the logistics system,^[34] waste management, etc. It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.

The traditional "three R's" of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a waste hierarchy which may be considered in product and package development.

• Prevention – Waste prevention is a primary goal. Packaging should be used only where needed. Proper packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important part in preventing loss or damage to the packaged product (contents). Usually, the energy content and material usage of the product being packaged are much greater than that of the package. A vital function of the package is to protect the product for its intended use: if the product is damaged or degraded, its entire energy and material content may be lost.
• Minimization (also "source reduction") – Eliminate overpackaging. The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of contents) can be measured and used as criteria for minimizing the package in the design process. Usually "reduced" packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging.^[35]
• Reuse – Reusable packaging is encouraged.^[36] Returnable packaging has long been useful (and economically viable) for closed-loop logistics systems. Inspection, cleaning, repair, and recouperage are often needed. Some manufacturers re-use the packaging of the incoming parts for a product, either as packaging for the outgoing product^[37] or as part of the product itself.^[38]
• Recycling – Recycling is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into new products. Emphasis is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a package: steel, aluminum, papers, plastics, etc. Small components can be chosen which are not difficult to separate and do not contaminate recycling operations. Packages can sometimes be designed to separate components to better facilitate recycling.^[39]
• Energy recovery – Waste-to-energy and refuse-derived fuel in approved facilities make use of the heat available from incinerating the packaging components.
• Disposal – Incineration, and placement in a sanitary landfill are undertaken for some materials. Certain US states regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the potential to contaminate emissions and ash from incineration and leachate from landfill. Packages should not be littered.

Development of sustainable packaging is an area of considerable interest to standards organizations, governments, consumers, packagers, and retailers.

Sustainability is the fastest-growing driver for packaging development, particularly for packaging manufacturers that work with the world's leading brands, as their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) targets often exceed those of the EU Directive.

Choosing packaging machinery includes an assessment of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, multiple products, etc.), energy requirements, quality of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, ergonomics, return on investment, etc.

Packaging machinery can be:

1. purchased as standard, off-the-shelf equipment
2. purchased custom-made or custom-tailored to specific operations
3. manufactured or modified by in-house engineers and maintenance staff

Efforts at packaging line automation increasingly use programmable logic controllers and robotics.

Packaging machines may be of the following general types:

• Accumulating and collating machines
• Blister packs, skin packs and vacuum packaging machines
• Bottle caps equipment, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines
• Box, case, tray, and carrier forming, packing, unpacking, closing, and sealing machines
• Cartoning machines
• Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines
• Coding, printing, marking, stamping, and imprinting machines
• Converting machines
• Conveyor belts, accumulating and related machines
• Feeding, orienting, placing and related machines
• Filling machines: handling dry, powdered, solid, liquid, gas, or viscous products
• Inspecting: visual, sound, metal detecting, etc.
• Label dispenser
• Orienting, unscrambling machines
• Package filling and closing machines
• Palletizing, depalletizing, unit load assembly
• Product identification: labeling, marking, etc.
• Sealing machines: heat sealer or glue units
• Slitting machines
• Weighing machines: check weigher, multihead weigher
• Wrapping machines: stretch wrapping, shrink wrap, banding
• Form, fill and seal machines
• Other specialty machinery: slitters, perforating, laser cutters, parts attachment, etc.

• 
  Bakery goods shrinkwrapped by shrink film, heat sealer and heat tunnel on roller conveyor
• 
  High speed conveyor with stationary bar code scanner for sorting
• 
  Label printer applicator applying a label to adjacent panels of a corrugated box
• 
  Robots used to palletize bread
• 
  Automatic stretch wrapping machine
• 
  Equipment used for making molded pulp components and molding packaging from straw^[40]
• 
  A semi-automatic rotary arm stretch wrapper
• 
  Equipment for thermoforming packages at NASA
• 
  Automated labeling line for wine bottles
• 
  Shrink film wrap being applied on PET bottles
• 
  Pharmaceutical packaging line
• 
  Filling machinery for bag-in-box

• Brazilian packaging market
• Document automation
• In-mould labelling
• Packing problems
• Package cushioning
• Pallet collar
• Polypropylene raffia
• Resealable packaging
• Gift wrapping
• Zero-waste lifestyle

• Calver, G., What Is Packaging Design, Rotovision. 2004, ISBN 2-88046-618-0.
• Dean, D.A., 'Pharmaceutical Packaging Technology", 2000, ISBN 0-7484-0440-6
• Meisner, "Transport Packaging", Third Edition, IoPP, 2016
• Morris, S.A., "Food and Package Engineering", 2011, ISBN 978-0-8138-1479-7
• Pilchik, R., "Validating Medical Packaging" 2002, ISBN 1-56676-807-1
• Robertson, G.L., "Food Packaging: Principles and Practice", 3rd edition, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4398-6241-4
• Selke, S., "Plastics Packaging", 2004, ISBN 1-56990-372-7
• Tweede, Selke, Cartons, Crates And Corrugated Board: Handbook of Paper And Wood Packaging Technology, Destech Pub ,2014, 2nd edition,

• Media related to Packaging at Wikimedia Commons